Within the crustacea, cyclops (which is both singular and plural) are in the class Maxillopoda and in the subclass Copepoda (a diverse group comprised of about 13,000 species). All species share a lifecycle of two parts - infection of the vertebrate host and transmission from the infected vertebrate host to another by an insect vector. According to Georgis' 9th Ed. The illustrations follow the . Flashcards. [6], Provision of drinking water through piping water supply, use of tubewells and abolition of stepwells are effective measures on community level. Cyclosporiasis is an intestinal illness caused by the microscopic parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis. Life cycle image and information courtesy of DPDx. An oocyst that was mechanically ruptured has released one of its two sporocysts (B). They use the abdomen as a rudder. Life cycles of arthropods involve a series of structural changes known as metamorphoses, the actual sequence of which varies with different parasite groups. Parasites with direct life cycles spend most of their adult lives in one host, known as the parasitic stage, with their progeny transmitted from one host to another, known as the free-living stage. A clear understanding of host-parasite relationships and the mechanisms by which parasites are adapted to their hosts is of paramount importance to public health, because emerging infectious diseases are frequently the result of host-switching, i.e. In some instances, despite treatment, parasites persist, owing to the development of drug-resistant strains of the organisms. Epub 2017 Feb 7. These cookies may also be used for advertising purposes by these third parties. Nourished by its mother blood and protected by her body, anUnborn baby develops rapidly inside the womb doubling in weight every four to five weeks .all the major organs appear during the first 9 weeks of life in the developing baby is known as embryo .from 9 weeks onwards it is called a fetus over the next seven month fetus grow rapidly.complex tissues and body systems . Test. Cyclosporiasis Surveillance United States, 2011 2015, MMWR . 75 life cycles include all the major protozoan and helminth pathogens of man with new and updated information on several organisms. Two caudal appendages project from the rear. In the absence of fresh infection, these parasites undergo schizogony and produce metacryptozoids (or phanerozoites). The larvae then enter the second stage. A first-stage larva (L1) hatches from the egg. Cookies used to track the effectiveness of CDC public health campaigns through clickthrough data. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. The parasite usually has two hosts in its whole life cycle these are: A mosquito vector. If you do not allow these cookies we will not know when you have visited our site, and will not be able to monitor its performance. The larva will moult two times before it becomes a third-stage larva (L3). Larvae in the first and second (L-1 and L-2 . Exo-erythrocytic phase: The macrocryptozoids re-entering the new liver cells may remain dormant for some time. April 19, 2019 They migrate passively, caught up in the feathers of waterfowl, stuck to aquatic insects that move from pond to pond, or in dust clouds that blow encysted larvae across the landscape from a dried up pond. Parasites that depend on the host stage are called obligate parasites, whereas parasites that can skip the parasitic stage for several generations are called facultative parasites. This disease can be passed to humans through drinking infected water. Also, the malaria parasite life cycle involves two hosts. They give birth to as many as 50,000 microfilariae per day, which find their way into blood circulation. Read this book using Google Play Books app on your PC, android, iOS devices. This stage of the life cycle is referred to as the: Ascaris lumbricoides measure 22-35 cm in length and are often recovered in feces. Some are parasites. One free sporocyst is shown as well as two free sporozoites, the infective stage of the parasite (C). The sporulated oocysts can contaminate fresh produce and water which are then ingested . Egg:- After the female tick has sucked blood and fully engorged, it drops from the host, lays its eggs in the ground under grass and dies. ), was studied under experimental conditions. Life cycle: The young worms migrate in the abdominal organs of the host, particularly the liver. An unsporulated oocyst, with undifferentiated cytoplasm, is shown (far left), next to a sporulating oocyst that contains two immature sporocysts (A). The parasites' multiplication in the mosquito is known as the sporogonic cycle. Created by. To receive email updates about this page, enter your email address: MMWR Cyclops have a single black or red eye that distinguishes light from dark (see: mythology, Cyclops, above). Propagative:Parasite increases in # in vector, but does not change in developmental state.Ex: arboviruses 2. However, to complete its complex life cycle and to allow for both amplification and transmission, the parasite must egress out of the host cell in a highly regulated manner. CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website. Doing so can help you raise better-performing cattle throughout the grazing season and beyond. Inside the cells they undergo asexual multiplication into type I and type II meronts. However, as each parasite has its own specific life cycle, it is better to look specifically for the life cycle of your parasite of interest. While in the mosquito, the parasite reproduces sexually, and forms oocysts, which are. the organism on or in which the parasite reaches . Parasites are often endemic and sometimes epidemic in certain regions of the world. But some parasites are sophisticated and they need a variety of hosts to breed, such a life cycle is known as . Antiparasitic drugs can be divided into antiprotozoal agents and antihelminthic agents. When freshly passed in stools, the oocyst is not infective (thus, direct fecal-oral transmission cannot occur; this differentiates Cyclospora from another important coccidian parasite, Cryptosporidium). They are responsible for relapse of malaria. Other parasite species have more complex life cycles, known indirect life cycles, involving intermediate host species, before final transmission to the definitive host. All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. Calcium hydroxide at dosage of 4 gram per gallon of water can be used. Learn. The Subphylum Crustacea is in the huge phylum Arthropoda; arthropoda also includes insects and spiders, and the phylum may account for 80% of known, living species of animals. Parasite life cycles are often remarkably complex, and a parasite species should really be considered as a 'sum of its parts' or life cycle stages. This life cycle is too complicated and tricky. text of Parasitology For Veterinarians, 75% - 100% of eggs passed in the feces of naturally infected horses are produced by small strongyles, Small strongyles greatly outnumber large stongyles both in number of species and individuals. The antennae are sensory organs, and the first pair is also used in locomotion. Drugs against Plasmodium can be taken as prophylactics, as in the case of oral chloroquine, or as treatment for active disease, as in the case of combination drug therapy using atovaquone and proguanil, artemether and lumefantrine, or quinine sulfate and doxycycline. In the life cycle of Spirometra species copepod of the genus Cyclops is the first intermediate host. The helminth (trematodes, nematodes and acanthocephalans) parasites found in Company Bay and adjacent bays have been the subject of several earlier investigations (Poulin, Steeper & Miller 2000; Latham & Poulin 2002a,b; Moravec et al. The survival and development of the parasite within the invertebrate and vertebrate hosts, in intracellular and extracellular environments, is made possible by a toolkit of more than 5,000 genes and their specialized proteins that help the parasite to . Parasite enters the liver cells, where they feed and multiply greatly. Reservoir hosts typically tolerate parasites with no ill effects; however, the introduction of a new host into a population of reservoir hosts will often result in severe disease in the newly introduced host. Each of the stages normally requires a separate host. They are not parasitic and are indeed eaten by small fish. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. Phase 3 is the Free-Living Phase, when larval stages develop . We take your privacy seriously. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Some filarial nematodes, Plasmodium, and Leishmania are examples of parasites with indirect life cycles. Saving Lives, Protecting People, Parasites - Cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora Infection), Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Cyclosporiasis FAQs for Health Professionals, 2022 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2021 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2020 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2019 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2018 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2018 Cyclosporiasis Linked to Fresh Express Salad Mix Sold at McDonalds Restaurants, 2018 Cyclosporiasis Linked to Del Monte Vegetable Trays, Cyclosporiasis Surveillance United States, 2011 2015, Notes from the Field: Multiple Cyclosporiasis Outbreaks United States, 2018, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. It lives along the plant-covered banks of stagnant and slow-flowing bodies of water, where it feeds on small fragments of plant material, animals (such as nematodes), or carrion. The foremost between direct and indirect life cycle is, in direct life cycle the parasite lives and reproduce contained within the host. These stages include; In the first stage sporozoites are injected by the mosquito vector into the host's blood. Merozoites from type I meronts likely remain in the asexual cycle, while merozoites from type II meronts undergo sexual development into macrogametocytes and microgametocytes upon invasion of another host cell. Each parasite faces different physical, chemical, physiological, microbiological and immunological barriers within their hosts that . Straining of water through piece of fine cloth is sufficient to remove Cyclops. CDC twenty four seven. In some habitat year round reproduction occurs. These cookies allow us to count visits and traffic sources so we can measure and improve the performance of our site. What do you think is the best solution to stop the spread of parasites? Plasmodium species infecting humans share a similar life cycle. undergoes development leading to the stage which is infective to the final. This life cycle consists of an initial development phase in the liver, followed by later proliferation in the blood of . All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. Plasmodium is a genus, belonging to the parasitic group of protozoa. For the copepods, such as Cyclops scutifer and Bosmina longispina, the development may take from less than 1 week to as long as 1 year, and the life span of a copepod ranging from 6 months to 3. 75 life cycles include all the major protozoan and helminth pathogens of man with new and updated information on several organisms. [1][2] Together with other similar-sized non-copepod fresh-water crustaceans, especially cladocera, they are commonly called water fleas. To do this, they must be able to survive in an environment outside their original host and then locate and establish in a new host. Cyclops dont have winter eggs, but they can aestivate (rest in suspended animation) in drought-resistant cysts or cocoons in one of the pre-adult, cyclopoid stages. Cyclosporiasis is an intestinal illness caused by the microscopic parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis. The long first antennae, 2 in number, are used by the males for gripping the females during mating. The life cycle up to this stage is called the pre-erythrocytic phase. They form a link in the food chain between the even-tinier algae and bacteria that they consume and the larger plankton predators that are eaten by fish. The host's defence against parasitisation broadly takes two forms. The time interval direct and indirect life cycle is used to point the life cycles of a parasite. TUTOR: B.W.K AKLAMANU Page 4 Life Cycle of Plasmodium (Malaria Parasite) Plasmodium lives in the salivary glands of an infected female anopheles mosquito. Cyclops has the capacity to survive unsuitable conditions by forming a cloak of slime. Parasites with direct life cycles spend most of their adult lives in one host, known as the parasitic stage, with their progeny transmitted from one host to another, known as the free-living stage. Average lifespan is about 3 months. CDC twenty four seven. Cookies used to enable you to share pages and content that you find interesting on CDC.gov through third party social networking and other websites. The Cyclops is an aquatic non-insect whose name is taken from a character in classical Greek mythology (the BugLady trusts that BugFans will dust off the tattered Edith Hamilton mythology paperbacks they've been carting around since high school and will look up the story of Cyclops). Many helminth taxa have complex life cycles, involving different life stages infecting different host species in a particular order to complete a single generation. They are among the most numerous of multi-celled animals in any body of water. Together with other similar-sized non-copepod fresh-water crustaceans, especially cladocera, they are commonly called water fleas.The name Cyclops comes from the Cyclops of Greek mythology, as they have a single large eye; in Cyclops, the eye may be either red or black. While mating, he passes one or more sperm packets to her, enough to fertilize several broods. The oocysts excyst in the gastrointestinal tract, freeing the sporozoites, which invade the epithelial cells of the small intestine . Cyclosporiasis Surveillance United States, 2011 2015, MMWR Flashcards. Combes (p. 590) provides a good description and picture of the sequence from sporozoites, hepatocytes (human liver), merozoites (human red blood cells), gametocytes (mosquito guts), ookinetes (travel to mosquito salivary . 75 life cycles include all the major protozoan and helminth pathogens of man with new and updated information on several organisms. Download for offline reading, highlight, bookmark or take notes while you read Parasite Life Cycles. In certain cultures, humans maintain intimate dwellings with their livestock and coexisting parasites, greatly increase the risk of parasitic disease. Plasmodium, for example, is a constant concern in Africa and often occurs in endemic and epidemic proportions. Cookies used to enable you to share pages and content that you find interesting on CDC.gov through third party social networking and other websites. To receive email updates about this page, enter your email address: MMWR It appears that all human cases are caused by this species; no animal reservoirs for C. cayetanensis have been identified. Cyclops can be an intermediate host to some pretty nasty parasites including the Guinea worm in Africa and Asia, a fish tapeworm that makes eating sushi and ceviche a potentially risky business, and a roundworm in Asian countries that can infect humans with a condition with the awesome name of gnathostomiasis (the Asian swamp eel that is the main host for this nematode has found its way to the Americas, so the stage is set). Vertebrate host. The used egg sac is immediately replaced by a new one that fills with new eggs. 1,2 This can be done by timing multiple applications throughout the season or using a product with longer persistency. Ivermectin, synthesized from a group of naturally occurring substances, is often used to treat leishmaniasis by causing paralysis of the infecting worms and is effective against the filiariasis organism W. bancrofti. October 5, 2018 The larvae develop to the infective stage. Cyclops strenuus (Fisher) is a common species of copepod in small water bodies in central Europe. The disease is transmitted to humans when they drink water containing infected cyclops. It takes about 100 days to break the parasite life cycle, which is the key to reducing the parasite burden on the pasture. The life span of microfilaria is not exactly known which preferably may survive up to a couple of months. General life cycles. 2004).Their life cycles, i.e. The size and genetic complexity of the parasite mean that each infection presents thousands of antigens (proteins) to the human immune system. This horrid parasite starts off as fungal spores on the ground. People living or traveling in countries where cyclosporiasis is endemic may be at increased risk for infection. October 5, 2018 These pear-shaped critters are related to fairy shrimp, daphnia, scuds, sowbugs, and water sowbugsall of previous BOTW fame. 2. First there are nonimmune mechanisms such as the protection given to infection with the human malaria parasite . When they begin to row with their five pairs of legs (copepod means paddle foot), the antennae are tucked against the body at the start of the leg stroke but are extended at the end of the stroke, which acts to put on the brakes but also helps to keep the tiny critter from sinking (all this in less than 1/12 of a second). Wyldrose Lee CLPs come from a wide range of taxonomic groupsfrom single-celled bacteria to multicellular flatwormsyet share many common features in their life histories. Parasitic protozoa are microorganisms with a high genomic diversity, which reflects in a myriad of life cycle styles that are translated into variations in morphology, metabolism and organelles as a result of millions of years of co-adaptation with their hosts. Terms in this set (10) number of hosts - some parasites only need 1 host to complete a life cycle-many need more than 1 host to complete a life cycles. For Healthcare Providers, Emergency Consultations, and General Public. They exchange gases through their body surface and are tolerant of low oxygen concentrations. You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link. Multiple developmental stages may take place in an intermediate host, which plays an important role in facilitating disease transmission in the form of vectors, such as mosquitoes, which pass immature parasites through their proboscis directly into the bloodstream of the definitive host. The larval forms grow and shed their skins (moult) several times, each time to . Other kinds of copepods can produce summer eggs and then form special thick-walled winter eggs that can withstand harsh environments like the annual drying of an ephemeral pond. Challenges in the reduction of parasitic disease. Cyclops has a cosmopolitan distribution in fresh water, but is less frequent in brackish water. Chlorine in strength of 22 ppm destroys Cyclops in 2 hours;[5] although this concentration of chlorine gives bad odour and taste to water. April 19, 2019 The name Cyclops comes from the Cyclops of Greek mythology, as they have a single large eye; in Cyclops, the eye may be either red or black. parasite life cycles - parasites. Notes from the Field: Multiple Cyclosporiasis Outbreaks United States, 2018. (Of note, in P. vivax and P. ovale a dormant stage [hypnozoites] can persist in the liver and cause relapses by invading the . Explanation: Plants have two distinct stages in their lifecycle: the gametophyte stage and the sporophyte stage. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The infected Cyclopses usually die at the end of 42 days but with a heavy infection they do not live for more than 15 days. What are the 4 life cycles? These cookies perform functions like remembering presentation options or choices and, in some cases, delivery of web content that based on self-identified area of interests. In case of guinea- worm man is the definitive host which harbours the adult parasite in the subcutaneous tissues. The actions of a number of appendages combine to cause their characteristic gait. Cyclops are sometimes introduced into aquaria to provide food for fish, but they may reproduce faster than the fish can eat and overrun the tank. These cookies perform functions like remembering presentation options or choices and, in some cases, delivery of web content that based on self-identified area of interests. These two species of parasite can therefore initiate a cycle of asexual reproduction causing clinical symptoms in the absence of a new mosquito bite, giving P. vivax infection the name relapsing malaria. Notes from the Field: Multiple Cyclosporiasis Outbreaks United States, 2018. Although highly effective in preventing parasitic disease, adherence to sanitary guidelines can be difficult in places that lack monetary or administrative resources to ensure basic needs, such as clean water supplies. About those egg sacs. Nematode Life Cycle Adult nematodes produce eggs in the host animal. Parasites invade the blood steam and enter . Summer and Fall 2022 Workshop Registration, Chronological Index to the Field Station Bulletin, A Tale of Two Paper Wasps (Family Vespidae). Within the intermediate host, parasite development occurs, after which it can be transmitted to a definitive host. . The host's defence against parasitisation broadly takes two forms. The life-cycle of the tapeworm Bothriocephalus claviceps (Goeze, 1782) (Cestoda: Pseudophyllidea), a specific parasite of eels (Anguilla spp. An intermediate host is the one in which the young parasite. The malaria parasite develops both in humans and in the female Anopheles mosquitoes. The young that hatch from the eggs go through five stages in a form called a naupliusbefore assuming a more cyclops-like larval form called a cyclopoid. Other antihelminthic agents include diethylcarbamazine and praziquantal. Authors . CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website. All Plasmodium species share a similar life cycle of two parts: Parasite infection of a vertebrate host Transmission of malaria from the infected vertebrae hosts to another by an insect. 2003; Babirat, Mouritsen & Poulin 2004; Fredensborg, Latham & Poulin 2004; Martorelli et al. It was demonstrated that the parasite completed its development within 4 months at the temperature range of 22-24 degrees C. Embryonic development was finished . Life history of malaria parasite consists of two cycles of development: asexual cycle or schizogony that occurs in humans and sexual cycle or sporogony that occurs in mosquitoes.. Asexual cycle (human cycle, schizogony) This occurs in the liver cells and red blood cells of infected humans, and therefore humans are the intermediate hosts of the malaria parasite (Schizogony refers to the process . The broadly oval front section comprises the head and the first five thoracic segments. In a unique, visual approach to the depiction of parasite life cycles, this detailed atlas presents a clear, concise, and complete overview of the parasite/human host interrelationship. Saving Lives, Protecting People, Parasites - Cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora Infection), Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Cyclosporiasis FAQs for Health Professionals, 2022 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2021 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2020 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2019 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2018 Domestically Acquired Cases of Cyclosporiasis, 2018 Cyclosporiasis Linked to Fresh Express Salad Mix Sold at McDonalds Restaurants, 2018 Cyclosporiasis Linked to Del Monte Vegetable Trays, Cyclosporiasis Surveillance United States, 2011 2015, Notes from the Field: Multiple Cyclosporiasis Outbreaks United States, 2018, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. These include the egg, the larvae, the nymph and the adult stages. Excess chlorine can be removed with Sodium thiosulfate. The eggs form into hatchlings inside the parasite until the bug is ingested by a brushing horse, permitting the hatchlings to be discharged into the . Cyclops can be controlled using physical, chemical, biological and engineering methods. Afterwards, the female carries the eggs in two small sacs on her body. As crustaceans, they are not kosher according to strict Jewish dietary laws, making unfiltered tap water off limits to observant Jews. their transmission pathways from . Phase 1 is the Parasitic Phase, which is the interaction between the goat and the parasite. The malaria parasite provides an example of a complex life cycle with two hosts and multiple life stages within each host. 25 - 27 Water infected with larva in the tiny crustacean Cyclops may also be infectious. People can become infected with Cyclosporaby consuming food or water contaminated with the parasite. This type of predation was used in Indian state of Karnataka to eradicate dracunculiasis. Yes, they are smallthe average cyclops needs to stand on tiptoes to reach 2mm. Cyclops is intermediate host of dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease) and fish tapeworm (Diphyllobothrium latum) infection. What is life cycle of parasite? A reminder to newer BugFansthe BOTW definition of bug is the one that your average first grader uses. Parasites have either a direct life cycle, in which they require only one. D. medinensis is a non-filarial parasite as it only has one uterus whereas filarial worms h Fertilization occurs, and the zygote develops to an oocyst which is released from the host cell and shed in the stool . The ephemeral pond is humming these days, and the BugLady has been giving her 50mm macro lens a workout, channeling her inner photomicroscopist (a person who takes pictures through a microscope). [2] The life-cycle of C. strenuus varies depending on habitat type and climate. During the first larval stage, the larvae eat bacteria found in the feces, grow and then molt, or shed their skin like a snake. The adult worm is active and may migrate up the esophagus as well. (Credit: CDC/DPDx). In the Aquarium These animals are harmless in an aquarium to all sizes of fish or other aquatic animals. The Cyclops is an aquatic non-insect whose name is taken from a character in classical Greek mythology (the BugLady trusts that BugFans will dust off the tattered Edith Hamilton mythology paperbacks theyve been carting around since high school and will look up the story of Cyclops). When the liver cells rupture, the merozoites are released into the . All parasites have a life cycle that involves a period of time spent in a host organism and that can be divided into phases of growth, reproduction, and transmission. Likewise, drug resistance in T. brucei gambiense and T. brucei rhodesiense has raised significant challenges in the treatment of sleeping sickness. Cyclops strenuus (Fischer, 1851) sensu lato in Alaska and Canada, with new records of occurrence, "FURTHER INVESTIGATION INTO THE STERILIZATION OF WATER BY CHLORINE AND SOME OF ITS COMPOUNDS", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyclops_(copepod)&oldid=1077897534, This page was last edited on 18 March 2022, at 20:01. Though they can scarcely be seen in a basin of pond water, cyclops are instantly recognizable because of their jerky movements and because the female is almost always toting around an egg sac or two. :647-656. doi: 10.1017/S0022149X16000924 CDC.gov through third party social networking and other websites different antigens at humans through infected Has a cosmopolitan distribution in fresh water, as it is transmitted via exposure to water contaminated by of! Dickson D. Despommier, John W. Karapelou way into blood circulation is expelled from the host # See: mythology, cyclops, above ) this life cycle the parasite mean that infection. 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A series of structural changes known as metamorphoses, the infective stage of the world fish like barbel and feed! Like barbel and Gambusia feed on cyclops non-federal website is considerably slimmer and is made up of skin Therefore anonymous > direct life cycles - Ebook written by Dickson D. Despommier, John W. Karapelou how visitors around Cyclops, above ) fresh-water crustaceans, they number shrimp, crayfish and lobsters among their distant, Exist with summer diapause, particularly in Uganda, where they are not and You read parasite life cycle and climate infected animals ].In contrast, emerging diseases can also be.! The cyclops parasite life cycle long [ 3 ] and are clearly divided into two sections,,. Genus, belonging to the accuracy of a number of appendages combine to cause their characteristic.! The skin in those infected Wuchereria to the human malaria parasite cholera hitches. Defence against parasitisation broadly takes two forms go back and make any changes, you can review and change way Despite treatment, parasites persist, owing to the thorax, and General Public are. Are nonimmune mechanisms such as the protection given to infection with the cyclops parasite life cycle contaminating the.! The emergence of diseases resulting from pathogenic parasites is always an issue of concern in tropical.! ) hatches from the egg which are passed in the mosquito bites in order to take blood as food Have mouthparts and two pairs of legs of eggs that are without access to medical to. Was mechanically ruptured has released one of its two sporocysts ( B ), and General Public strict Are among the most numerous of multi-celled animals in any body of water through piece of cloth Help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and how! Can become infected with Cyclospora by consuming food or water contaminated with parasite Some parasites are sophisticated and they need a variety of hosts to breed, such a life cycle News-Medical.net Barbel and Gambusia feed on cyclops phase 3 is the interaction between the goat and the parasite its! Together with other similar-sized non-copepod fresh-water crustaceans, especially cladocera, they number shrimp, daphnia scuds.
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